The Issue of Identity – Finding Women’s Voices in Christianity

By Celia Fitz-Walter

Women have been traditionally considered as marginalised and voiceless in religion. Whilst an increasing number of religions are allowing women to have greater participation and leadership roles, there are still traditional religions which are led and shaped by men, including many Christian religions. The following essay will examine how and why women have been marginalised in Christianity, using two case studies to illustrate the effect of excluding women in the religious hierarchy. The first case study will examine the Catholic Church and its treatment of women, and the second case study will look at how women in Africa are moving beyond traditional Christian religions in order to find their own spiritual voice.

Morny Joy believes that many Christian women have felt alienated in their religion because God has been traditionally conceived through male-identified ideals, thus making it difficult for women to find their own voice and receive recognition of their experiences. She states, “For too long women in religion, as well as in society itself, have been denied their voice. Their experiences have been regarded as insignificant” (Joy 1995). These thoughts are reflected by Ursula King, who believes that, in traditional religions, ideals have been put forward by men to the detriment and exclusion of women, with no attention to gender specificities. She believes that the discrimination that has resulted from this exclusion of women has been naturalised and defended as being God-given (King 1995).

‘God-imagery’ and ‘God-talk’, traditionally conceived by males and directly relating to males, has in recent times been challenged and revised by feminist theological scholars, so much to the extent that Morny Joy believes Christian theology is undergoing a major permanent change (Joy 1995). Additionally, changes in contemporary Western philosophy, notably French and American, have allowed for greater articulation of women’s expression in theology and have meant that women do not have to rely on traditional masculine-centred ideals (Joy 1995). There are hurdles that need to be overcome with this articulation, however, and Joy identifies three philosophical limitations with regards to finding religious identities for women. Firstly, essentialism; when things are regarded as being natural or having universal validity rather than being socially or culturally constructed, secondly, relativism; when truths are seen as being dependent on the individual holding them and, thirdly, dualism; the idea of two basic opposing elements, such as ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’. Ursula King believes that for women to find their voice in religion ‘gender polarization’ needs to be overcome, that is, when the sex of one’s body is linked to their character, behaviour and sexuality (King 1995).

Notable Christian feminist theologian Rosemary Ruether’s work has focussed on the importance of women’s experience in Christianity, and how this has been ignored in the past with the focus on males and male-centred ideals. She states, “Women in contemporary churches are suffering from linguistic and Eucharistic famine. They can no longer nurture their souls in alienating words that ignore or systematically deny their existence. They are starved for the words of life, for symbolic forms that fully and wholeheartedly affirm their personhood” (Ruether 1986, p. 4). It is the importance of identification and connection that Ruether speaks of that seems to run through the work of many feminist theological scholars as something which women, in particular those in Christian religions, seek. In order to explore this further, this essay will now focus on the Catholic Church and its treatment of women.

Case Study One – The Catholic Church

Whilst receiving much praise, the decision to allow for women’s ordination in the Anglican Church was not accepted by many people and resulted in a number of Anglican priests and laity leaving their church (Cornwell 2001). Many have argued that it is time for the Catholic Church to follow suit and allow women to become priests, however a declaration in 1994 by John Paul II that women in the Catholic Church would never serve as priests essentially put a stop to all further discussions of this issue at the Vatican (Cornwell 2001).

There are a number of reasons which have been used to defend the Church’s refusal to grant women’s ordination with the three main reasons seen to be because only men were present at the Last Supper, because women were never ordained by Jesus, and because women cannot present God as they do not resemble Jesus in his maleness. (McClory 2007 and Morwood 2007). However, many scholars believe that the issue stems from the Church’s general exclusion and alienation of women from its early inception. Morwood states, “All throughout its history, the Church has treated women with suspicion and with belief in male superiority. Medieval scholars taught that women do not have the wisdom of men and therefore should not be entrusted with public office in the Church” (Morwood 2007 p. 87).

The bible is often used for justification of the subjugation of women. John Cornwell believes that exclusive language in the bible and the denial of women to priesthood are the two main ways that the Catholic Church can be seen to alienate women. He says that the scriptural and liturgical patriarchal language including the use of ‘false generics’ (whereby a term such as ‘man’ is used to refer to both males and females) has contributed to the notion of women as inferior to dominant men (Cornwell 2001). Passages in the bible have been used to support the case against women’s ordination, in particular the Genesis account, whereby woman comes from man and is tempted into committing the main sin against God. Max Charlesworth says, however, that this story has to be interpreted in light of the patriarchal views of Jewish people in the early days. He states, “….Genesis is not a good source for developing a Christian understanding of the meaning of gender differences and human sexuality. Clearly, the mythical account in Genesis of the creation of the first man and woman reflects the cultural prejudices of early Judaism about women’s inferiority” (Charlesworth 2008 p. 29). Another scripture that has been used in association with negative prejudices against women is The Book of Leviticus in the Old Testament, interpretations of which raised stigmas about menstruation and female impurity. Such interpretations of this account were, until recently, used to support the view that women cannot be priests because of the view that menstruating women were infectious and therefore not allowed in the sanctuary containing the Eucharist and other holy objects (Cornwell 2001).

Disregarding the various arguments for and against women’s ordination in the Catholic Church, the issue has been receiving increased consideration in recent times due to a practical reason, that being the dwindling number of Catholic priests and in some cases, parishes without priests (Cornwell 2001). Charlesworth points to a particular example in the Netherlands which has experienced a significant drop in the number of ordained priests and where many Catholics are missing out on celebrating a Eucharistic celebration because of the shortage of priests. With relation to this instance, it has been proposed that both men and women should be allowed to celebrate the Eucharist in the absence of an ordained priest (Charlesworth 2008). Certainly there are a significant number of Catholic women who do feel a calling towards the Catholic priesthood. A simple internet search for ‘women Catholic priests’ reveals numerous organisations and international groups that are pressing for the ordination of women in the Catholic Church. There has been a series of secret ordination ceremonies for women that have already occurred however these are not recognised by the Roman Catholic Church, and some of the women ordained have been excommunicated from the Catholic Church as a result (McClory 2007). However, not all Catholic feminist scholars approve the idea of women’s ordination because they view the whole clerical structure as outmoded and in need of fundamental renewal. Whilst prominent feminist theologian Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza has in the past campaigned for women’s ordination in light of the Anglican move, currently she and other feminists are pushing to abolish ordination full stop and instead have a system of increased equality with shifting leadership roles (Cornwell 2007).

If there ever was a time when it was seen that a change in women’s positions in the Catholic Church might occur it was when The Second Vatican Council was held in the 1960s, at a time when the feminist movement was making progress, especially in America. There were calls for women’s equality on all fronts; business, politics, education, and religion. While the Vatican Council showed promise of change for women’s positions in the Church, it appeared to fall short of many women’s hopes and expectations. This is shown more specifically with regards to statistics of the number of Roman Catholic nuns, whose role until the Second Vatican Council has been described as “essentially one of radical subservience to the male-dominated clergy” (Morwood 2007, p. 184). It was reported that 170, 000 Roman Catholic nuns gave up their position in the twenty years following the Second Vatican Council, and in the forty years after reports showed a 58 percent loss of nuns to the Catholic Church (Cornwell 2007 and Morwood 2007). Additionally, the average age of Roman Catholic nuns is said to be seventy and rising (Morwood 2007). Whilst these plummeting figures have been said by many to be reflective of societal changes since the ‘60s, such as increased education and career possibilities for many women, others, particularly feminist scholars, have cited two conflicting visions of the Church as the reason for so many women’s departure. The first vision is said to be that of the traditional male-dominated hierarchy, and the other is said to be the pluralist view of the Church catering to all people (Cornwell 2007).

Catholic feminists who are challenging traditional ideals and roles of women are calling for dialogue with Church authorities so that women have the opportunity to experience a closer identification with the Church. However, not all Catholic women want the traditional position of women to change. There are conservative Catholic women’s groups who are against Catholic feminists and their work (Cornwell 2007). However, there still remains to be a significant number of women who have left the Catholic Church, and whilst some may have chosen to abandon adherence to a certain faith altogether, others have sought spiritual advancement outside the Church.

In recent times, there has been a rise of post-Christian spiritualities in Europe and America, said to appeal to women who were once Christians but who have moved away from their traditional religion (Woodhead 1993). Noted for their ‘religious eclecticism’ and for drawing on a range of myths, rituals, and god and goddess-centred worship, post-Christian spiritualities are said to have been developed by feminists who sought spiritual connection that they could not find in their traditional religion (Woodhead 1993). These religions are offering solace to women in the Western world who are seeking spiritual connection outside of their traditional religions. In Africa, too, a significant number of women are turning to new religious movements, and this will now be examined.

Case Study Two – New Religious Movements in Africa

An article by Rosalind Hackett investigates a range of new independent churches in Africa and how they appeal to women who have been excluded from traditional religions. Whilst Hackett acknowledges that women may be drawn to the new movements because of spiritual or financial problems, she believes that they often stay because they feel greater inclusiveness and responsibility as women compared to other religions. She also believes the holistic aspect of many movements as well as increased support and an emphasis on spirituality make the new movements very popular with women (Hackett 1995).

Hackett outlines a wide variety and range of religious movements, including new revivalist movements as well as those that revive traditional religious ideas and concepts (neo-traditional movements). In fact, many of the new religions are said to borrow from traditional religions such as Catholicism, but show a reinterpretation and revitalisation of beliefs and practices (Hackett 1995). Greater status is offered to African women in many of the new movements compared to traditional religions or mission churches, with some church hierarchies based on spiritual gifts or experience instead of education so that women have increased leadership opportunities (Hackett 1995).

Hackett also discusses the significant number of religious movements that have been founded by women. One particular religious movement is the Cherubim and Seraphim movement in Nigeria, which began as a prayer movement to supplement Anglican Church services. The founder of the movement, Madam Christianah, belonged to the Anglican Church and was heavily involved with traditional religion, however a number of contentions with her church caused her to break away and become Mother Superintendent of the Western Conference of the Cherubim and Seraphim in 1936 (Hackett 1995). The movement was developed by women and there are a number of opportunities for women to have positions of leadership however Hackett does reveal that there are fewer openings for women to hold leadership positions compared to men.

Admittedly, while the leadership opportunities available to women in new religious movements appear to be greater than those offered by traditional religions or mission Churches, Hackett notes that women rarely get promoted to high positions of leadership within the movements and instead it is through their own initiative or as a result of secession that they can achieve an elevated status. However, Hackett does make note of some progressive churches, such as The Church of the Lord, where women can hold leadership positions at the top of the hierarchy.

Amongst the diversity of new religious movements in Africa, Hackett points out prevailing themes, these being the recognition of women’s spiritual and mystical powers, rejection of oppressive practices for women, non-conformism to tradition (or “ambivalence’ of tradition”), and greater leadership and participatory roles and opportunities for women (Hackett 1995). It appears from this case study that a significant number of African women are turning to faiths in which they can spiritually identify with and feel included in.

Concluding Remarks

The two case studies discussed above show some of the effects of excluding women from traditional religions. In the Catholic Church, exclusive language and activities which alienate women have meant that some women have sought spiritual connection elsewhere. In Africa, the exclusion of women is evidenced by the growing number of new religious movements that are appealing to women who have left their traditional religions. What both case studies show is that, for a significant number of women, spiritual connection and religious identity are important, and if they cannot find this in their Christian religion then they may pursue this through other avenues. Feminist readings of the Christian Scripture have been said to liberate women to an extent but many have pointed to the need for dialogue between feminist scholars and religious hierarchies in order to challenge and revitalise old concepts so that women may feel greater acknowledgement and inclusion in their religion.

References

Charlesworth, Max. A Democratic Church. Mulgrave: John Garratt Publishing, 2008.

Cornwell, John. Breaking Faith. New York: Penguin Books, 2001.

Hackett, Rosalind. “Women and New Religious Movements in Africa.” Religion and Gender. Ed. Ursula King. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995. 257-290.

Joy, Morny. “God and Gender: Some Reflections on Women’s Invocations of the Divine.” Religion and Gender. Ed. Ursula King. Cambridge: Blackwell, 1995. 121-143.

King, Ursula (ed). Religion and Gender. Oxford: Blackwell, 1995. 1-28.

McClory, Robert. As it Was in the Beginning. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 2007.

Morwood, Michael. From Sand to Solid Ground. Richmond: Spectrum Publications, 2007.

Ruether, Rosemary. Women-Church: Theology and Practice. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1986.

Woodhead, Linda. “Post-Christian Spiritualities.” Religion 1993, Vol. 23. 167-181.