By: Tomoko Nawata
Introduction
“Are you a Buddhist?” “What is your religion?” These kinds of questions always trouble me to answer. I guess many Japanese people have difficulties in replying when they are asked about their religious attitude, except those who practice religion based on monotheism. There are quite a few numbers of temples and shrines in Japan. Does this mean Japan is a religious country and religions have strong effects to the society? Japan grew up its indigenous religion and took various religions from outside in its history and this had strong impact on the society. In this essay, I will give brief history and explanation of major religions in Japan, and then describe how they have affected the society today.
Brief history of religions in Japan
Shinto is the only major religion which is rooted in Japan (Earhart 2004, 31). Shinto is based on worship of ancestors, matsuri (festival) for thanksgiving of the harvest and so on.(Kokugakuin University 2009) Shinto means “The Way to Kami (deities).” It was developed from local cults which can be observed throughout Japan and should be considered as a religion based on the collection of local tradition. In fact, this indigenous religion was named Shinto after the arrival of Buddhism to tell native religion from imported religions. Affected by highly systemised Buddhism, Shinto began being systemised after the arrival of Buddhism (Hearn 1966, 194), (Clarke 2009, 133-34). In the Tokugawa period, the shogunate conducted control of the religions. Shinto was assigned to perform court ritual and related rites, few Shinto shrines perform funeral ceremony. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government promoted the separation of Shinto and Buddhism and aimed to be a Shinto centred sate. In other words, Shinto and Buddhism were not highly distinguished until the Meiji era, although institutionalisation was over a long time (Kokugakuin University 2009). Shinto became a national religion but it was Imperial Shinto that was assigned to be a national religion. Shrine Shinto experienced a period of time when the Meiji government did not admit it was a religion (Kimura 2003, 4).
Buddhism was found in India. It arrived in Japan all the way from India through several Asian countries, so it had already changed its form when it entered Japan. Both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism were introduced to Japan but only Mahayana was accepted by the Japanese society. Korea brought Buddhism in the middle of the sixth century. At first, Buddhism had a conflict with Shinto. However, Buddhism gradually accepted by aristocrats, the imperial court and the state but it was not popularised among ordinary people. In Nara period, Emperor Shomu, one of the most devoted emperors, built a main temple known as Todai-ji (Todai temple) and temples in every province to ensure the country’s peace. Buddhism played a role in the state religion. After Heian period, Buddhism began separating into several denominations. In Tokugawa period, the shogunate aimed to unify the country. Tokugawa believed that the national religion is inevitable in doing so. Under this policy, Christianity which entered Japan in the middle of sixteen century was prohibited and all the citizens were forced to become the supporter of local Buddhist temples. Buddhist temple was allocated as a place for registration of life’s main event, such as birth, death and marriage. After the Meiji restoration, Shinto took the place of the state religion (Earhart 2004, 41-46, 98-99, 146).
Confucianism and Taoism are said to be brought from China with the Chinese culture during the same time as the arrival of Buddhism. The Chinese ancient thoughts and practices were the foundations for both Confucianism and Taoism and therefore they have similar characteristics within each other. They are based on Chinese cosmological ideas, for instance, the way of universe. Confucianism emphasises on political or social order and practicing rites for ancestors and personal virtues. Taoism focuses on natural order and mystical performance such as divination (Earhart 2004, 52-53).
The advent of the Japanese state system was brought about by Confucianism. A constitution made by Shotoku was mainly composed of Confucian ideology. Confucianism had been thriving as an ethic, not as a religion throughout the Japanese history. After the end of the Pacific War, Confucianism disappeared from the educational field, because it did not match the new notion of democracy (Earhart 2004, 53-56, 62). Although Confucianism weakened its impact on the society, but Confucianism ideology still can be observed in contemporary Japan.
Taoism’s definition is ambiguous because it has philosophical and religious properties and also has close tie with court rituals and Chinese popular practices. When all of these aspects were considered as a Taoist thought, many Japanese cultural aspects owe to Taoism. Among Taoist ideology, Chinese traditional thinking influenced the Japanese culture the most. Taoism was firstly taken up among prominent families and then gradually diffused into the society. Onmyoryo (onmyo means yin-yang in Japanese) or Bureau of Divination was introduced in Nara period, imitating Chinese court, but it did not last for a long time. In Heian period, Taoism influenced Shinto and Buddhism, and shared a lot of thoughts with them. Consequently, Taoism lost its own ideology. Taoism could not stay as an organised religion, however its aspect of Chinese ancient thought became an indispensable part of Japanese culture (Earhart 2004, 56-62).
After the war, the separation of religion and politics took place. No religion could exist as a state religion any longer and every citizen had their freedom in choosing his/her religion (Anesaki 1961, 99-102). After the enforcement of the law, religions, especially Shinto and Confucianism weakened their impact on the society due to the rapid modernisation after the end of the war.
Religions and Japanese society
“The whole is greater than the sum of its parts (Earhart 2004, 3).” This explains religion in the Japanese society appropriately. Religions in Japan had developed in a process of mutual interaction, and have coexisted. The reason why several religions can coexist is that they do not have conflicting doctrines within each other and play their roles in different fields. Shinto is responsible for the solidarity of the community, striving for community peace, while Buddhist priests cope with the performing of ritual for ancestors, helping the adherent to deal with the sorrow of losing their family member and so forth (Morioka 1975, 5-6). In 2001, the Religion Yellowbook published by the Ministry of Cultural Affairs showed 85percent of Japanese are considered to be Shinto followers and 75percent to be Buddhists (Kimura 2003, 2). That is to say, many Japanese are counted as both Shinto and Buddhist. Many of those who practice Shinto and Buddhism at the same time have both Butsudan (Buddhist alter) and kamidana
Shinto’s most striking role now is several kinds of worship. New Year’s Worship is the biggest one among them. Quite a fem number of the Japanese visit the shrine to make New Year’s wishing (Clarke 2009, 133-34). There are many famous festivals related to the Shinto, such as the Coming-of-age ceremony, Doll’s festival, Boy’s festival, Shichigosan (a festival for boys of three and five years old and girls for three and seven years old) and Miyamairi (to take new-born baby to the shrine). There festivals are to pray for or appreciate healthy growing-up of children or to cerebrate becoming an adult. Apart from these seasonal or periodic wishing, many Japanese come to the shrine to pray for recovery from disease or success the entrance exam (Web Dream 2009), (Clarke 2009, 135). Matsuri is also one of the Shinto styles of worship. This is to wish the harvest or to ensure the peaceful community. Nowadays, however, few people are engaged in agriculture, so the latter is more emphasised (Yanagawa 1988, 152-53).
In the present day, the most important role of Buddhism is to perform a funeral of the dead and the memorial rite to ancestors. As mentioned, every Japanese citizen must have to be the adherents of local Buddhist temple in Tokugawa period. A large proportion of them still remain Buddhist by name. Therefore most of adherent’s household ask the Buddhist priest for performing rituals for the deceased family members. Buddhist temple has a role of helping people in need by teaching of Buddhism, which is regarded the most important task for the Buddhist priest. But general Japanese people do not take part in Buddhist worship unless they attend funeral service or memorials rite for their ancestors once in a several years (Clarke 2009, 137).
Confucianism had affected Japan for a long time. There might be few people who consider themselves as a Confucian. However, many teachings of Confucianism were taken into Japanese morality or ethics. In the Meiji period, there was ie (family) system which was based on the Confucian idea. Under this system, the father had absolute control on the family; wife and children must have to obey him and continuing their family line is an important task for the family. This is influenced by the idea of filial piety and reverence for ancestors. The Japanese work ethic also has strong influence of Confucianism. Although this ie system was abolished after the war, it is still accepted by some people, generally the older generation (Woronoff 1997, 121-22).
Taoism could not flourish as an institutional religion but gave huge impact on the Japanese culture. As mentioned, the aspect of Chinese ancient thought rooted the society. Chinese calendar is the most widespread culture related to Taoism. There is lucky day and unlucky day based on the cosmological theory. These lucky or unlucky days are written on many calendars in Japan. Some Japanese people take it into consideration regarding when to get married, have funeral or memorial service or even when to go to travel. Feng shui is also the custom based on yin-yang idea and five phases. There are lucky and unlucky directions like the calendar. Some people apply this custom when they built their houses or arranging in buildings (Earhart 2004, 58-59).
Conclusion
Several religions have coexisted in Japan from ancient times. Through the history, many leaders adopted various religions as state religion in order to unify the country. Tokugawa period had massive impact on het religions in contemporary Japan. Shinto and Buddhism are the most major religions for a long time, but the state policies made the Japanese less interested in religions. On the contrary, many Japanese people still participate in worship or festival related to Shinto. While Shinto is responsible for praying or wishing, Buddhism’s most significant role is to perform funeral and associated rites. Apart from institutional religion, Confucianism and Taoism contributed a lot to the Japanese culture. Confucianism still has significant role in the Japanese society, such as ensuring social order. Taoist mythical aspects fitted into Japanese culture. Ordinary Japanese citizen would not feel that they are deeply involved in religions and many rituals, ceremonies or festivals which have been secularised. However religious-related worship or rites might continue to thrive as a part of the Japanese culture.
REFERENCE LIST
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